Biology of the uterus
Biology of the uterus
1 History 1
1. Greece. 1
2. Alexandria. 2
3. Rome. 4
4. The Dark Ages”. 4
5. Renaissance. 6
6. Seventeenth to Early Twentieth Centuries. 8
7. Contemporary. 13
8. References. 17
2 Comparative Anatomy 19
1. Types of Uteri. 22
2. Distribution and Probable Evolution of Uterine Types. 23
3. Correlations of Uterine Types with Other Biological Features. 27
4. Miscellaneous Aspects of the Comparative Morphology of the Uterus. 29
5. Summary and Conclusions. 32
6. References. 32
7. Bibliography. 34
3 Prenatal Human Development 35
1. Urinary Preliminaries. 35
2. The Paramesonephric Ducts.
3. The Vaginal Controversy.
4. The Fetal Uterus.
5. The Second Half of Prenatal Life
6. References.
4 Vascular Anatomy 57
1. Basic Aspects of Architecture and Physiology of Uterine Arteries 58
1.1. Nonpregnant. 58
1.2. Pregnant. 58
2. Interaction of Trophoblast and Decidua. 62
3. Contemporary Studies. 65
4. References. 66
5 Vascular Physiology of the Nonpregnant Uterus 69
1. Fundamental Characteristics of the Uterine Vasculature. 70
1.1. The Pressure Flow Relationship. 70
1.2. Autonomic Influences. 70
1.3. Effects of Myometrial Contractions. 73
1.4. Endocrine Regulation. 74
2. Uterine Blood Flow during the Ovarian Cycle. 77
2.1. Temporal Changes. 77
2.2. Hormonal and Other Correlates. 78
3. Mediators of Estrogen-Induced Vasodilatation. 79
4. Responses of the Nonplacental Uterine Vasculature during Pregnancy. 81
5. Conclusion. 84
6. References. 84
6 Cellular Biochemistry of the Endometrium 89
1. Methodological Comments. 90
2. Intracellular Constituents. 91
2.1. Cytoskeletal Proteins. 91
2.2. Oncogene Products. 95
2.3. The 24k Protein. 96
3. Cell Surface. 96
3.1. Cell Polarity. 97
3.2. Cell Location. 97
3.3. Hormone-Dependent Alterations. 98
3.4. Preparation for Implantation. 100
4. Extracellular Matrix. 100
4.1. Interstitial Components. 100
4.2. Basal Laminal Components. 106
4.3. Functional Significance of Matrix Reorganization. 108
5. Secretory Components. 109
5.1. Uteroglobin. 109
5.2. Iron-Binding Secretory Products. 110
5.3. Prolactin. Ill
5.4. Diamine Oxidase. Ill
5.5. a2-PEG. 112
5.6. arPEG. 113
5.7. High-Molecular-Weight Components. 114
5.8. Other Glycoproteins. 117
6. Concluding Remarks. 118
7. References. 119
7 Cell Biology of the Endometrium 131
1. Mechanism of Hormone Action. 134
1.1. General Mechanism of Hormone Action. 134
1.2. Polypeptide Hormones. 134
1.3. Steroid Hormones. 135
1.4. Estrogen Marker Proteins. 137
1.5. Progesterone Marker Proteins. 137
2. Steroid Receptors. 146
2.1. Receptor Distribution. 146
2.2. Receptor Assays. 147
2.3. Nuclear Acceptor Sites. 149
2.4. Estrogen Progestin Interactions. 150
2.5. Hamster Estrous Cycle. 152
2.6. Pregnancy. 154
2.7. Density-Shift Studies. 154
2.8. A Unifying Concept. 159
3. References. 162
8 The Endometrium of Delayed and Early Implantation 175
1. Marsupials. 176
2. Roe Deer. 179
3. Armadillos.
4. Insectivores and Chiroptera
5. Carnivores.
5.1. Seals.
5.2. Bears.
5.3. Mustelids.
6. Rodents.
7. Nonhuman Primates.
8. Discussion.
9. References.
9 The Implantation Reaction 233
1. Adhesion. 233
1.1. Morphological Changes in the Uterine Epithelial Cell Surface. 234
1.2. Surface Charge on Blastocysts. 234
1.3. Surface Charge on the Uterine Epithelium. 236
1.4. Cell Adhesion Mechanisms. 237
1.5. Surface Glycoproteins on Blastocysts. 237
1.6. Surface Glycoproteins on Uterine Epithelial Cells. 239
2. Vascular Permeability. 241
2.1. Blood Vessels Responsible for Increased Vascular Permeability. 241
2.2. Role of Prostaglandins in Increased Vascular Permeability. 244
2.3. Endometrial Prostaglandins. 245
2.4. Blastocyst Prostaglandins. 246
3. The Decidual Cell Reaction. 247
3.1. The Primary Decidual Zone. 248
3.2. Antimesometrial Decidua. 251
3.3. Mesometrial Decidua. 255
3.4. The Role of Prostaglandins in Initiating Decidualization. 256
3.5. Mechanisms of Prostaglandin Effects on Vascular Permeability and Decidualization. 257
3.6. Decidual Cell Metabolism. 258
3.7. Functions of Decidual Tissue. 260
4. Epithelial Cell Loss. 260
4.1. The Uterine Epithelium Adjacent to the Trophoblast. 260
4.2. Apoptosis as the Mode of Cell Death in Uterine Epithelium. 261
4.3. Effects of Trophoblast on Uterine Epithelium. 263
4.4. Effects of Decidual Tissue on Uterine Epithelium. 266
5. References. 267
10 Regeneration in the Primate Uterus The Role of Stem Cells 279
1. Endometriectomy and the Location of the Endometrial Stem Cells. 280
2. Compartmentalization of the Primate Endometrium. 282
3. Zonation of the Primate Endometrium. 283
4. Cyclic Changes in Endometrial Zonal Uptake of 3H Thymidine. 285
4.1. Epithelial Mitotic Activity in the Transient Compartment during Estrogen Dominance. 285
4.2. Germinal Mechanisms in the Endometrial Basalis. 285
5. Hypothesis Cyclic Endometrial Renewal in Menstruating Primates. 287
6. References. 287
11 The Human Endometrium Cyclic and Gestational Changes 289
1. Histology. 289
2. Ultrastructure. 294
2.1. The Normal Menstrual Cycle. 294
2.2. The Nucleolar Channel System. 302
2.3. The Decidua. 304
2.4. The Arias-Stella Reaction. 310
2.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy. 311
2.6. Ultrastructural Localization of Enzymes. 314
3. Clinical Correlations. 317
3.1. Effects of Contraceptive Agents. 317
3.2. Menstruation. 319
4. Structural Vascular Changes in Normal and Hypertensive Pregnancies. 320
5. References. 329
12 Endometrial Hyperplasia and Neoplasia 333
1. Laboratory Evidence. 334
1.1. Histology. 334
1.2. Electron Microscopy. 335
1.3. Morphometry, DNA Feulgen Microspectrophotometry, and Flow Cytometry. 337
1.4. In Vitro DNA Histoautoradiography. 338
1.5. Immunohistochemistry. 339
2. Clinical Evidence. 342
3. Coexistent Association. 349
4. Clinical Implications of the Two-Disease Concept. 350
5. References. 351
13 Biochemistry of the Myometrium and Cervix 355
1. The Structure of the Myometrium. 356
1.1. Cellular Organization. 356
1.2. Filament Structure and Function. 356
2. Calcium and Contractile Regulation. 358
2.1. The Importance of Ca2 Ions. 358
2.2. The Source of Activating Calcium. 360
2.3. Measurements of Cellular Ca2 Transients. 360
3. Regulation of Transmembrane Ca2 Fluxes. 361
3.1. Mechanisms of Ca2 Efflux. 361
3.2. The Ca2 Transport System of the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum. 363
3.3. Mechanisms of Ca2 Influx. 363
4. Contractile Proteins of the Myometrium. 366
4.1. Myosin. 366
4.2. Thin Filament Proteins. 368
5. Regulation of Myometrial Contractility. 369
5.1. Calmodulin. 369
5.2. Calmodulin-Dependent Myosin Light Chain Kinase. 369
5.3. The Mechanism of MLCK Action. 372
5.4. Modulation of Smooth Muscle Contractility by MLCK. 373
5.5. Myosin Light Chain Phosphatase. 374
5.6. Phosphorylation of Myosin Light Chain and Heavy Chains by Other Kinases. 374
5.7. Second-Site Phosphorylation of Myosin. 375
6. Mechanisms of Smooth Muscle Regulation Other Than MLCK. 375
6.1. Thin Filament Regulation Caldesmon. 376
6.2. Regulation of Smooth Muscle Contraction by Cyclic Nucleotides. 376
6.3. Endocrine Regulation of Myometrial Contractility. 377
7. Integrated Model for Regulation of Smooth Muscle Contractility. 380
8. Preterm Birth and Tocolytic Therapy. 382
8.1. Calcium Channel-Blocking Agents. 382
8.2. Prostaglandin Synthesis Inhibitors. 383
8.3. Calmodulin-Inhibiting Drugs. 383
8.4. Functional Peptides. 384
8.5. The Efficacy of 3-Adrenergic Agents. 385
9. Cervix. 385
9.1. Biochemistry of Cervical Maturation. 385
9.2. Hormonal Control of Cervical Maturation. 387
9.3. Relationship between Myometrial Contractility and Cervical Maturation. 388
10. References. 390
14 Electrophysiological Properties of Uterine Smooth Muscle 403
1. Review of Methodology. 404
1.1. Comparison of Uterine, Cardiac, and Skeletal Muscles. 404
1.2. A Brief Statement of the Ionic Theory of Excitation. 405
1.3. Methods of Studying Electrical Activities of Smooth Muscles. 409
2. Ionic Distribution as the Basis of Electrophysiological Phenomena. 418
2.1. Studies in Ionic Contents and Distribution. 418
2.2. Ionic Contents and Intracellular Concentrations. 419
2.3. Hormonal and Gestational Influences on Ionic Distribution. 423
3. Electrical Activity of the Myometrium and Other Mammalian Smooth Muscles. 424
3.1. Descriptive Phenomena. 424
3.2. Ionic Basis of Electrical Activity. 428
3.3. Tissue Phenomena. 442
3.4. Actions of Some Drugs on the Myometrium. 445
4. Summary and Concluding Remarks. 449
5. References. 450
15 Ultrastructure of the Myometrium 455
1. Cellular Organization of the Myometrium. 455
2. Ultrastructure of Myometrial Smooth Muscle Cells. 458
2.1. Size and Shape. 458
2.2. Organelles. 459
2.3. The Plasma Membrane. 464
2.4. Effects of Hormones and Pregnancy. 468
3. Gap Junctions and Cell-to-Cell Communication in the Myometrium. 469
3.1. Gap Junction Structure. 469
3.2. Gap Junctions in the Myometrium. 471
3.3. Function of Gap Junctions. 473
3.4. Control of Myometrial Junctional Communication. 480
3.5. Significance of Gap Junctions and Their Modulation to Pregnancy and Parturition. 487
3.6. Contractile Mechanism of Myometrial Smooth Muscle Cells. 488
4.1. Thin Filaments. 488
4.2. Thick Filaments. 491
4.3. Cytoplasmic and Membrane-Associated Dense Bodies. 493
4.4. Intermediate Filaments. 494
4.5. Structural Organization of the Contractile Apparatus and Its Possible Association with the Cytoskeleton. 495
4.6. Mechanical Transmission in a Multicellular Tissue. 497
Conclusion. 497
References. 498
Uterine Control of Ovarian Function 505
Ovarian Function. 505
1.1. Corpus Luteum in Rodentia and Lagomorpha. 506
1.2. Corpus Luteum in Artiodactyla. 508
1.3. Corpus Luteum in Primates. 512
Uterine Function. 512
2.1. Development and Regression of Endometrium and Myometrium. 512
2.2. Role of the Uterus in Cyclic Periodicity. 514
Uterine Ovarian and Conceptus Interaction in Regulation of Ovarian Function. 517
3.1. Uterine Ovarian Function during Pregnancy. 517
3.2. The Role of Uterine Conceptus Interactions on Ovarian Function. 522
3.3. Uterine Ovarian Microcirculation and Ovarian Function. 524
Luteolytic Actions of the Uterus Effects of Hysterectomy on Ovarian Function. 526
4.1. The Uterus and Luteal Function in Rodentia and Lagomorpha. 527
4.2. The Uterus and Luteal Function in Artiodactyla. 528
4.3. The Uterus and Luteal Function in Primates. 530
Uterine Ovarian Hormones and Ovarian Function. 532
5.1. Prostanoids and Leukotrienes. 532
5.2. Relaxin. 534
5.3. Oxytocin. 536
5.4. Other Hormones Affecting Uterine Function ACTH. 538
Mechanisms of Uterine Ovarian Interactions in Regulating Ovarian Function. 538
6.1. Morphology and Function of Placental and Luteal Cells. 538
6.2. Cellular and Biochemical Basis of Uterine Ovarian Interactions. 540
7. References. 542
17 Endocrine Control of Parturition 559
1. Problems in Understanding Basic Mechanisms of Parturition. 559
2. Preparation of the Uterus for Labor Estrogen. 560
2.1. Possible Regulation of Estrogen Action at the Receptor
Level. 562
2.2. The Role of Estrogens in Humans. 562
2.3. Identification of Active Estrogens in Humans. 562
2.4. Control of Estrogen Levels. 563
3. Uterine Quiescence. 564
3.1. Progesterone. 564
3.2. Relaxin. 566
3.3. Adrenergic Agents. 568
4. Activators of Uterine Activity. 569
4.1. Prostaglandins. 569
4.2. Oxytocin. 580
4.3. Relaxin. 590
5. Cervical Distensibility. 590
5.1. Hormonal Control of Cervical Maturation. 591
5.2. Relationship between Cervical Maturation and Myometrial Contractions. 592
6. A General Model for Parturition. 593
7. Unification of Mechanisms Proposed for Spontaneous Labor Induction. 593
7.1. Prostaglandins. 593
7.2. Estrogen Progesterone. 594
7.3. Fetal ACTH. 594
8. References. 594
1. Greece. 1
2. Alexandria. 2
3. Rome. 4
4. The Dark Ages”. 4
5. Renaissance. 6
6. Seventeenth to Early Twentieth Centuries. 8
7. Contemporary. 13
8. References. 17
2 Comparative Anatomy 19
1. Types of Uteri. 22
2. Distribution and Probable Evolution of Uterine Types. 23
3. Correlations of Uterine Types with Other Biological Features. 27
4. Miscellaneous Aspects of the Comparative Morphology of the Uterus. 29
5. Summary and Conclusions. 32
6. References. 32
7. Bibliography. 34
3 Prenatal Human Development 35
1. Urinary Preliminaries. 35
2. The Paramesonephric Ducts.
3. The Vaginal Controversy.
4. The Fetal Uterus.
5. The Second Half of Prenatal Life
6. References.
4 Vascular Anatomy 57
1. Basic Aspects of Architecture and Physiology of Uterine Arteries 58
1.1. Nonpregnant. 58
1.2. Pregnant. 58
2. Interaction of Trophoblast and Decidua. 62
3. Contemporary Studies. 65
4. References. 66
5 Vascular Physiology of the Nonpregnant Uterus 69
1. Fundamental Characteristics of the Uterine Vasculature. 70
1.1. The Pressure Flow Relationship. 70
1.2. Autonomic Influences. 70
1.3. Effects of Myometrial Contractions. 73
1.4. Endocrine Regulation. 74
2. Uterine Blood Flow during the Ovarian Cycle. 77
2.1. Temporal Changes. 77
2.2. Hormonal and Other Correlates. 78
3. Mediators of Estrogen-Induced Vasodilatation. 79
4. Responses of the Nonplacental Uterine Vasculature during Pregnancy. 81
5. Conclusion. 84
6. References. 84
6 Cellular Biochemistry of the Endometrium 89
1. Methodological Comments. 90
2. Intracellular Constituents. 91
2.1. Cytoskeletal Proteins. 91
2.2. Oncogene Products. 95
2.3. The 24k Protein. 96
3. Cell Surface. 96
3.1. Cell Polarity. 97
3.2. Cell Location. 97
3.3. Hormone-Dependent Alterations. 98
3.4. Preparation for Implantation. 100
4. Extracellular Matrix. 100
4.1. Interstitial Components. 100
4.2. Basal Laminal Components. 106
4.3. Functional Significance of Matrix Reorganization. 108
5. Secretory Components. 109
5.1. Uteroglobin. 109
5.2. Iron-Binding Secretory Products. 110
5.3. Prolactin. Ill
5.4. Diamine Oxidase. Ill
5.5. a2-PEG. 112
5.6. arPEG. 113
5.7. High-Molecular-Weight Components. 114
5.8. Other Glycoproteins. 117
6. Concluding Remarks. 118
7. References. 119
7 Cell Biology of the Endometrium 131
1. Mechanism of Hormone Action. 134
1.1. General Mechanism of Hormone Action. 134
1.2. Polypeptide Hormones. 134
1.3. Steroid Hormones. 135
1.4. Estrogen Marker Proteins. 137
1.5. Progesterone Marker Proteins. 137
2. Steroid Receptors. 146
2.1. Receptor Distribution. 146
2.2. Receptor Assays. 147
2.3. Nuclear Acceptor Sites. 149
2.4. Estrogen Progestin Interactions. 150
2.5. Hamster Estrous Cycle. 152
2.6. Pregnancy. 154
2.7. Density-Shift Studies. 154
2.8. A Unifying Concept. 159
3. References. 162
8 The Endometrium of Delayed and Early Implantation 175
1. Marsupials. 176
2. Roe Deer. 179
3. Armadillos.
4. Insectivores and Chiroptera
5. Carnivores.
5.1. Seals.
5.2. Bears.
5.3. Mustelids.
6. Rodents.
7. Nonhuman Primates.
8. Discussion.
9. References.
9 The Implantation Reaction 233
1. Adhesion. 233
1.1. Morphological Changes in the Uterine Epithelial Cell Surface. 234
1.2. Surface Charge on Blastocysts. 234
1.3. Surface Charge on the Uterine Epithelium. 236
1.4. Cell Adhesion Mechanisms. 237
1.5. Surface Glycoproteins on Blastocysts. 237
1.6. Surface Glycoproteins on Uterine Epithelial Cells. 239
2. Vascular Permeability. 241
2.1. Blood Vessels Responsible for Increased Vascular Permeability. 241
2.2. Role of Prostaglandins in Increased Vascular Permeability. 244
2.3. Endometrial Prostaglandins. 245
2.4. Blastocyst Prostaglandins. 246
3. The Decidual Cell Reaction. 247
3.1. The Primary Decidual Zone. 248
3.2. Antimesometrial Decidua. 251
3.3. Mesometrial Decidua. 255
3.4. The Role of Prostaglandins in Initiating Decidualization. 256
3.5. Mechanisms of Prostaglandin Effects on Vascular Permeability and Decidualization. 257
3.6. Decidual Cell Metabolism. 258
3.7. Functions of Decidual Tissue. 260
4. Epithelial Cell Loss. 260
4.1. The Uterine Epithelium Adjacent to the Trophoblast. 260
4.2. Apoptosis as the Mode of Cell Death in Uterine Epithelium. 261
4.3. Effects of Trophoblast on Uterine Epithelium. 263
4.4. Effects of Decidual Tissue on Uterine Epithelium. 266
5. References. 267
10 Regeneration in the Primate Uterus The Role of Stem Cells 279
1. Endometriectomy and the Location of the Endometrial Stem Cells. 280
2. Compartmentalization of the Primate Endometrium. 282
3. Zonation of the Primate Endometrium. 283
4. Cyclic Changes in Endometrial Zonal Uptake of 3H Thymidine. 285
4.1. Epithelial Mitotic Activity in the Transient Compartment during Estrogen Dominance. 285
4.2. Germinal Mechanisms in the Endometrial Basalis. 285
5. Hypothesis Cyclic Endometrial Renewal in Menstruating Primates. 287
6. References. 287
11 The Human Endometrium Cyclic and Gestational Changes 289
1. Histology. 289
2. Ultrastructure. 294
2.1. The Normal Menstrual Cycle. 294
2.2. The Nucleolar Channel System. 302
2.3. The Decidua. 304
2.4. The Arias-Stella Reaction. 310
2.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy. 311
2.6. Ultrastructural Localization of Enzymes. 314
3. Clinical Correlations. 317
3.1. Effects of Contraceptive Agents. 317
3.2. Menstruation. 319
4. Structural Vascular Changes in Normal and Hypertensive Pregnancies. 320
5. References. 329
12 Endometrial Hyperplasia and Neoplasia 333
1. Laboratory Evidence. 334
1.1. Histology. 334
1.2. Electron Microscopy. 335
1.3. Morphometry, DNA Feulgen Microspectrophotometry, and Flow Cytometry. 337
1.4. In Vitro DNA Histoautoradiography. 338
1.5. Immunohistochemistry. 339
2. Clinical Evidence. 342
3. Coexistent Association. 349
4. Clinical Implications of the Two-Disease Concept. 350
5. References. 351
13 Biochemistry of the Myometrium and Cervix 355
1. The Structure of the Myometrium. 356
1.1. Cellular Organization. 356
1.2. Filament Structure and Function. 356
2. Calcium and Contractile Regulation. 358
2.1. The Importance of Ca2 Ions. 358
2.2. The Source of Activating Calcium. 360
2.3. Measurements of Cellular Ca2 Transients. 360
3. Regulation of Transmembrane Ca2 Fluxes. 361
3.1. Mechanisms of Ca2 Efflux. 361
3.2. The Ca2 Transport System of the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum. 363
3.3. Mechanisms of Ca2 Influx. 363
4. Contractile Proteins of the Myometrium. 366
4.1. Myosin. 366
4.2. Thin Filament Proteins. 368
5. Regulation of Myometrial Contractility. 369
5.1. Calmodulin. 369
5.2. Calmodulin-Dependent Myosin Light Chain Kinase. 369
5.3. The Mechanism of MLCK Action. 372
5.4. Modulation of Smooth Muscle Contractility by MLCK. 373
5.5. Myosin Light Chain Phosphatase. 374
5.6. Phosphorylation of Myosin Light Chain and Heavy Chains by Other Kinases. 374
5.7. Second-Site Phosphorylation of Myosin. 375
6. Mechanisms of Smooth Muscle Regulation Other Than MLCK. 375
6.1. Thin Filament Regulation Caldesmon. 376
6.2. Regulation of Smooth Muscle Contraction by Cyclic Nucleotides. 376
6.3. Endocrine Regulation of Myometrial Contractility. 377
7. Integrated Model for Regulation of Smooth Muscle Contractility. 380
8. Preterm Birth and Tocolytic Therapy. 382
8.1. Calcium Channel-Blocking Agents. 382
8.2. Prostaglandin Synthesis Inhibitors. 383
8.3. Calmodulin-Inhibiting Drugs. 383
8.4. Functional Peptides. 384
8.5. The Efficacy of 3-Adrenergic Agents. 385
9. Cervix. 385
9.1. Biochemistry of Cervical Maturation. 385
9.2. Hormonal Control of Cervical Maturation. 387
9.3. Relationship between Myometrial Contractility and Cervical Maturation. 388
10. References. 390
14 Electrophysiological Properties of Uterine Smooth Muscle 403
1. Review of Methodology. 404
1.1. Comparison of Uterine, Cardiac, and Skeletal Muscles. 404
1.2. A Brief Statement of the Ionic Theory of Excitation. 405
1.3. Methods of Studying Electrical Activities of Smooth Muscles. 409
2. Ionic Distribution as the Basis of Electrophysiological Phenomena. 418
2.1. Studies in Ionic Contents and Distribution. 418
2.2. Ionic Contents and Intracellular Concentrations. 419
2.3. Hormonal and Gestational Influences on Ionic Distribution. 423
3. Electrical Activity of the Myometrium and Other Mammalian Smooth Muscles. 424
3.1. Descriptive Phenomena. 424
3.2. Ionic Basis of Electrical Activity. 428
3.3. Tissue Phenomena. 442
3.4. Actions of Some Drugs on the Myometrium. 445
4. Summary and Concluding Remarks. 449
5. References. 450
15 Ultrastructure of the Myometrium 455
1. Cellular Organization of the Myometrium. 455
2. Ultrastructure of Myometrial Smooth Muscle Cells. 458
2.1. Size and Shape. 458
2.2. Organelles. 459
2.3. The Plasma Membrane. 464
2.4. Effects of Hormones and Pregnancy. 468
3. Gap Junctions and Cell-to-Cell Communication in the Myometrium. 469
3.1. Gap Junction Structure. 469
3.2. Gap Junctions in the Myometrium. 471
3.3. Function of Gap Junctions. 473
3.4. Control of Myometrial Junctional Communication. 480
3.5. Significance of Gap Junctions and Their Modulation to Pregnancy and Parturition. 487
3.6. Contractile Mechanism of Myometrial Smooth Muscle Cells. 488
4.1. Thin Filaments. 488
4.2. Thick Filaments. 491
4.3. Cytoplasmic and Membrane-Associated Dense Bodies. 493
4.4. Intermediate Filaments. 494
4.5. Structural Organization of the Contractile Apparatus and Its Possible Association with the Cytoskeleton. 495
4.6. Mechanical Transmission in a Multicellular Tissue. 497
Conclusion. 497
References. 498
Uterine Control of Ovarian Function 505
Ovarian Function. 505
1.1. Corpus Luteum in Rodentia and Lagomorpha. 506
1.2. Corpus Luteum in Artiodactyla. 508
1.3. Corpus Luteum in Primates. 512
Uterine Function. 512
2.1. Development and Regression of Endometrium and Myometrium. 512
2.2. Role of the Uterus in Cyclic Periodicity. 514
Uterine Ovarian and Conceptus Interaction in Regulation of Ovarian Function. 517
3.1. Uterine Ovarian Function during Pregnancy. 517
3.2. The Role of Uterine Conceptus Interactions on Ovarian Function. 522
3.3. Uterine Ovarian Microcirculation and Ovarian Function. 524
Luteolytic Actions of the Uterus Effects of Hysterectomy on Ovarian Function. 526
4.1. The Uterus and Luteal Function in Rodentia and Lagomorpha. 527
4.2. The Uterus and Luteal Function in Artiodactyla. 528
4.3. The Uterus and Luteal Function in Primates. 530
Uterine Ovarian Hormones and Ovarian Function. 532
5.1. Prostanoids and Leukotrienes. 532
5.2. Relaxin. 534
5.3. Oxytocin. 536
5.4. Other Hormones Affecting Uterine Function ACTH. 538
Mechanisms of Uterine Ovarian Interactions in Regulating Ovarian Function. 538
6.1. Morphology and Function of Placental and Luteal Cells. 538
6.2. Cellular and Biochemical Basis of Uterine Ovarian Interactions. 540
7. References. 542
17 Endocrine Control of Parturition 559
1. Problems in Understanding Basic Mechanisms of Parturition. 559
2. Preparation of the Uterus for Labor Estrogen. 560
2.1. Possible Regulation of Estrogen Action at the Receptor
Level. 562
2.2. The Role of Estrogens in Humans. 562
2.3. Identification of Active Estrogens in Humans. 562
2.4. Control of Estrogen Levels. 563
3. Uterine Quiescence. 564
3.1. Progesterone. 564
3.2. Relaxin. 566
3.3. Adrenergic Agents. 568
4. Activators of Uterine Activity. 569
4.1. Prostaglandins. 569
4.2. Oxytocin. 580
4.3. Relaxin. 590
5. Cervical Distensibility. 590
5.1. Hormonal Control of Cervical Maturation. 591
5.2. Relationship between Cervical Maturation and Myometrial Contractions. 592
6. A General Model for Parturition. 593
7. Unification of Mechanisms Proposed for Spontaneous Labor Induction. 593
7.1. Prostaglandins. 593
7.2. Estrogen Progesterone. 594
7.3. Fetal ACTH. 594
8. References. 594